Stereotypes and valuations of Peruvian social groups in a sample of wealthy people from Lima
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24265/liberabit.2019.v25n2.03Keywords:
stereotypes, prejudice, intergroup relation, mixedmethod designAbstract
Background: Peruvian society is characterized by its ethnical, cultural and socioeconomic diversity, which leads to complex intergroup relations. Objective: To contribute to understanding this phenomenon, the present study aims to examine the stereotypical representations and prejudice towards different Peruvian social groups by high-socioeconomic-status group members from Lima. Method: The research used a mixed-method design for complementing two different approaches: a quantitative one, where questionnaires were administered to a sample of 90 participants; and a qualitative one, in which semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 participants. Results: The results showed that the participants identified high- and low-status groups in the Peruvian society, and hold ambivalent stereotypical representations towards them. The participants identified and valued White Peruvians as high-status group members, who are competent and developed but also corrupt. On the other hand, they identified and valued Amazonian and African Peruvians to a lesser extent, who are considered as low-status, undeveloped but joyful groups. Conclusion: The study emphasizes the importance of social class attributes used in the formation of stereotypical representations and prejudice towards different Peruvian social groups.
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References
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Bodenhausen, G. V., Mussweiler, T., Gabriel, S. & Moreno, K. N. (2001). Affective Influences on Stereotyping and Intergroup Relations. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Handbook of Affect and Social Cognition. Manhaw, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bruce, J. (2007). Nos habíamos choleado tanto. Psicoanálisis y racismo. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Universidad San Martín de Porres.
Camino, L., da Silva, P., Machado, A. & Pereira, C. (2001). A face oculta do racismo no Brasil: Uma Análise Psicossociológica. Revista de Psicologia Política, 1, 13-36.
Cambon, L., Yzerbyt, V. & Yakimova, S. (2015). Compensation intergroup relations: An investigation of its structural and strategic foundations. British Journal of Social Psychology, 54, 140-158.
Cosamalón, A. L. (1993). El lado oculto de lo cholo. Allpanchis, 4, 211-226.
Creswell, J.W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. 2nd edn. California: Sage Publications.
Cueto, R. M. (2017). Estudios sobre relaciones intergrupales, identidades colectivas e ideología política en dos regiones del Perú (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima, Perú. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12404/9201
Cuddy, A., Fiske, S., & Glick, P. (2007). Warmth and competence as universal dimensions of social perception: The stereotype content model and the BIAS map. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 61-149.
Dovidio, J. F., Pearson, A. R., & Penner, L. A. (2018). Aversive Racism, Implicit Bias, and Microaggressions. Microaggression Theory, 16-31. doi:10.1002/9781119466642.ch2
Durante, F., Tablante, C. B., & Fiske, S. T. (2017). Poo but warm, rich but cold (and competent): Social classes in the stereotype content model. Journal of Social Issues, 73(1), 138-157.
Espinosa, A. (2003). Identidad social e identidad nacional en una muestra de triciclistas en Juliaca (Unpublished undergraduate degree thesis). Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima, Peru.
Espinosa, A. (2011). Estudios sobre identidad nacional en el Perú y sus correlatos psicológicos, sociales y culturales (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Universidad del País Vasco, San Sebastían, Spain.
Espinosa, A., Calderón-Prada, A., Burga, G., & Güímac, J. (2007). Estereotipos, prejuicios y exclusión social en un país multiétnico: el caso peruano. Revista de Psicología, 15(2), 296-331.
Espinosa, A., & Cueto, R. M. (2014). Estereotipos raciales, racismo y discriminación en América Latina, in E. Zubieta; J. Valencia & G. Delfino (Eds). Psicología Social y Política: procesos teóricos y estudios aplicados. (pp. 431-442). Buenos Aires: EUDEBA.
Fein, S., & Spencer, S. J. (1997). Prejudice as self-image maintenance: Affirming the self through derogating others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 31-44.
Fiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In D. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 357–411). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Fiske, S. T. (2000). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination at the seam between the centuries: evolution, culture, mind, and brain. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 188-211.
Fiske, S. T. (2015). Intergroup biases: A focus on stereotype content. Current opinion in behavioral sciences, 3, 45-50.
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A., Glick, P. & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 878-902.
Fiske, S. T. & Taylor, S. (2007). Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture. New York: McGraw- Hill.
Gaertner, S. L. & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination and racism (pp. 61-90). San Diego: Academic Press.
Genna, K. & Espinosa, A. (2012). Identidad, Etnicidad y Bienestar Social en un contexto socialmente excluyente. Psicología & Sociedade, 24(1), 84-93.
Gómez, A. (2005). Los inmigrantes chinos en el Perú. Retrieved from: http://historiaperuana.blogspot.com/2005/12/los-inmigrantes-chinos-en-el-per.html
Hamilton, D. L. (1981). Cognitive Processes in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hernández Sampieri, R., Fernández Collado, C., & Baptista Lucio, P. (2010). Metodología de la investigación. México DF: McGraw-Hill
Heyvaert, M., Maes, B., & Onghena, P. (2011). Mixed methods research synthesis: Definition, framework, and potential. Quality & Quantity, 47(2), 659-676.
Hyde-Clarke, N. (2008). Beyond stereotypes: representations of a foreign culture in film students’ productions. Literator, 29(2), 149-167.
Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. (2015). Perú: Perfil de la pobreza por dominios geográficos 2004-2014. Retrived from: https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1306/libro.pdf
IOP-PUCP (abril, 2018). Boletín N°151 Estado de la Opinión Pública: Experiencias de discriminación étnico-cultural en el Perú. Retrieved from http://repositorio.pucp.edu.pe/index/handle/123456789/123821
Ishibashi, J. (2003). Hacia una apertura del debate sobre el racismo en Venezuela: exclusión e inclusión estereotipada de personas negras en los medios de comunicación. In D. Mato (Ed.), Políticas de identidades y diferencias sociales en tiempos de globalización (pp. 33-61). Caracas: FACES-UCV.
Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 1-27
Kervyn, N., Yzerbyt, V., & Judd, C. (2010). Compensation between warmth and competence: Antecedents and consequences of a negative relation between the two fundamental dimensions of social perception. European Review of Social Psychology, 21, 155-187. doi: 10.1080/13546805.2010.517997
Latinobarómetro. (2011). Informe 2011. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/FUSADESORG/informe-latinobarometro-2011
León, R. (1998). Humillados y ofendidos: un estudio acerca del desprecio y discriminación en el Perú. Revista de Psicología, 16(1), 45-81.
Montero, M. (1991). Una orientación para la Psicología Política en América Latina. Psicología Política, 3, 27-43.
Pancorbo, G., Espinosa, A. & Cueto, R. M. (2011). Representaciones estereotípicas y expresión del prejuicio en el Perú: la mirada desde la pobreza. Revista de Psicología, 29(2), 311-342.
Portocarrero, G. (2006, setiembre). Hacia una comprensión del racismo. Página de Gonzalo Portocarrero. Retrieved from http://gonzaloportocarrero.blogsome.com/2006/09/27/hacia-una-comprension-del-racismo/
Portocarrero, G. (1992). Del racismo al mestizaje: una apuesta por la integración . In G. Portocarrero (Ed.), Los quinientos años: un espacio para la reflexión (pp. 31-41). Lima: Allpamérica.
Reding, S. (2007). Diversidad y Racismo en América Latina. Latinoamérica. Revista de Estudios Latinoamericanos, 44, 157-179.
Schaller, M. & Crandall, C. S. (2004). The psychological foundations of culture. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Song Hing, L.S., Bodocel, D.R., Zanna, M.P., Garcia, D.M., Gee, S.S., & Orazietti, K. (2011). The Merit of Meritocracy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(3), 433-450. doi: 10.1037/a0024618
Stangor, C. (2009). The study of stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination within social psychology: A quick history of theory and research In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination (pp. 1-22). New York: Psychology Press.
Tajfel, H. (1969). Cognitive aspects of prejudice. Journal of Social Issues, 25, 79-97.
Tajfel, H. & Forgas, J. P. (1981). Social categorization: Cognition, values, and groups. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Social Cognition: Perspectives on Everyday understanding (pp. 113-140). London: Academic Press.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-48). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. C. (1986). The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior. In S. Worchel & G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (Rev.Vol. 2), (pp. 7- 24), Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
Traverso-Yépez, M. (2005). Discursos Racistas: Institucionalización del Racismo a través de las prácticas lingüísticas. Revista Interamericana de Psicología, 39, 61-70.
Turner, J. C., Brown, R. J., & Tajfel, H. (1979). Social comparison and group interest in ingroup favouritism. European Journal of Social Psychology, 9, 187-204.
Twanama, W. (1992). Cholear en Lima. Márgenes, 9, 207-240.
Van der Toorn, J., Feinberg, M., Jost, J. T., Kay, A. C., Tyler, T. R., Willer, R., & Wilmuth, C. (2015). A sense of powerlessness fosters system justification: Implications for the legitimation of authority, hierarchy, and government. Political Psychology, 36(1), 93-110.
Van Dijk, T. A. (2007). Racismo y discurso en América Latina: una introducción. In T. A. Van Dijk (Ed.). Racismo y discurso en América Latina (pp. 21-34). Barcelona: Gedisa.
Vargas Llosa, M. & Munné, A. (2004). Obras Completas VI: Ensayos literarios I. Barcelona: Galaxia Gutenberg.
Yzerbyt, V., & Cambon, L. (submitted). The dynamics of compensation: When does ingroup favoritism permit complimenting the outgroup?
Volpato, C., Andrighetto, L., & Baldissarri, C. (2017). Perceptions of low status workers and the maintenance of the social class status quo. Journal of Social Issues, 73(1), 192-210.
Yzerbyt, V. (2016). Intergroup stereotyping. Current Opinion in Psychology, 11, 90-95.
Yzerbyt, V. (2018). The dimensional compensation model: Reality and strategic constraints on warmth and competence in intergroup perceptions. In A. Abele & B. Wojciszke (Eds.), Agency and Communion in Social Psychology (pp. 126-141). London, UK:
Routledge.
Yzerbyt, V. Y., & Cambon, L. (2017). The dynamics of compensation: When ingroup favoritism paves the way for outgroup praise. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 43, 587-600. doi:10.1177/0146167216689066
Yzerbyt, V., Provost, V., & Corneille, O. (2005). Not Competent but Warm… Really? Compensatory Stereotypes in the French-speaking World. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 8(3), 291-308.
Zárate, M. (2009). Racism in the 21st Century. In T. Nelson (Ed.) Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination (pp. 387-406). New York: Psychology Press.
Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley.
APEIM (2010). Fórmula APEIM - NSE LIMA 2010. Retrieved from http://www.apeim.com.pe/niveles.html
Avilés, M. (2016). De dónde venimos los cholos. Lima: Seix Barral.
Bodenhausen, G. V., Mussweiler, T., Gabriel, S. & Moreno, K. N. (2001). Affective Influences on Stereotyping and Intergroup Relations. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Handbook of Affect and Social Cognition. Manhaw, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bruce, J. (2007). Nos habíamos choleado tanto. Psicoanálisis y racismo. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Universidad San Martín de Porres.
Camino, L., da Silva, P., Machado, A. & Pereira, C. (2001). A face oculta do racismo no Brasil: Uma Análise Psicossociológica. Revista de Psicologia Política, 1, 13-36.
Cambon, L., Yzerbyt, V. & Yakimova, S. (2015). Compensation intergroup relations: An investigation of its structural and strategic foundations. British Journal of Social Psychology, 54, 140-158.
Cosamalón, A. L. (1993). El lado oculto de lo cholo. Allpanchis, 4, 211-226.
Creswell, J.W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. 2nd edn. California: Sage Publications.
Cueto, R. M. (2017). Estudios sobre relaciones intergrupales, identidades colectivas e ideología política en dos regiones del Perú (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima, Perú. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12404/9201
Cuddy, A., Fiske, S., & Glick, P. (2007). Warmth and competence as universal dimensions of social perception: The stereotype content model and the BIAS map. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 61-149.
Dovidio, J. F., Pearson, A. R., & Penner, L. A. (2018). Aversive Racism, Implicit Bias, and Microaggressions. Microaggression Theory, 16-31. doi:10.1002/9781119466642.ch2
Durante, F., Tablante, C. B., & Fiske, S. T. (2017). Poo but warm, rich but cold (and competent): Social classes in the stereotype content model. Journal of Social Issues, 73(1), 138-157.
Espinosa, A. (2003). Identidad social e identidad nacional en una muestra de triciclistas en Juliaca (Unpublished undergraduate degree thesis). Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima, Peru.
Espinosa, A. (2011). Estudios sobre identidad nacional en el Perú y sus correlatos psicológicos, sociales y culturales (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Universidad del País Vasco, San Sebastían, Spain.
Espinosa, A., Calderón-Prada, A., Burga, G., & Güímac, J. (2007). Estereotipos, prejuicios y exclusión social en un país multiétnico: el caso peruano. Revista de Psicología, 15(2), 296-331.
Espinosa, A., & Cueto, R. M. (2014). Estereotipos raciales, racismo y discriminación en América Latina, in E. Zubieta; J. Valencia & G. Delfino (Eds). Psicología Social y Política: procesos teóricos y estudios aplicados. (pp. 431-442). Buenos Aires: EUDEBA.
Fein, S., & Spencer, S. J. (1997). Prejudice as self-image maintenance: Affirming the self through derogating others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 31-44.
Fiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In D. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 357–411). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Fiske, S. T. (2000). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination at the seam between the centuries: evolution, culture, mind, and brain. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 188-211.
Fiske, S. T. (2015). Intergroup biases: A focus on stereotype content. Current opinion in behavioral sciences, 3, 45-50.
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A., Glick, P. & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 878-902.
Fiske, S. T. & Taylor, S. (2007). Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture. New York: McGraw- Hill.
Gaertner, S. L. & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination and racism (pp. 61-90). San Diego: Academic Press.
Genna, K. & Espinosa, A. (2012). Identidad, Etnicidad y Bienestar Social en un contexto socialmente excluyente. Psicología & Sociedade, 24(1), 84-93.
Gómez, A. (2005). Los inmigrantes chinos en el Perú. Retrieved from: http://historiaperuana.blogspot.com/2005/12/los-inmigrantes-chinos-en-el-per.html
Hamilton, D. L. (1981). Cognitive Processes in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hernández Sampieri, R., Fernández Collado, C., & Baptista Lucio, P. (2010). Metodología de la investigación. México DF: McGraw-Hill
Heyvaert, M., Maes, B., & Onghena, P. (2011). Mixed methods research synthesis: Definition, framework, and potential. Quality & Quantity, 47(2), 659-676.
Hyde-Clarke, N. (2008). Beyond stereotypes: representations of a foreign culture in film students’ productions. Literator, 29(2), 149-167.
Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. (2015). Perú: Perfil de la pobreza por dominios geográficos 2004-2014. Retrived from: https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/publicaciones_digitales/Est/Lib1306/libro.pdf
IOP-PUCP (abril, 2018). Boletín N°151 Estado de la Opinión Pública: Experiencias de discriminación étnico-cultural en el Perú. Retrieved from http://repositorio.pucp.edu.pe/index/handle/123456789/123821
Ishibashi, J. (2003). Hacia una apertura del debate sobre el racismo en Venezuela: exclusión e inclusión estereotipada de personas negras en los medios de comunicación. In D. Mato (Ed.), Políticas de identidades y diferencias sociales en tiempos de globalización (pp. 33-61). Caracas: FACES-UCV.
Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 1-27
Kervyn, N., Yzerbyt, V., & Judd, C. (2010). Compensation between warmth and competence: Antecedents and consequences of a negative relation between the two fundamental dimensions of social perception. European Review of Social Psychology, 21, 155-187. doi: 10.1080/13546805.2010.517997
Latinobarómetro. (2011). Informe 2011. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/FUSADESORG/informe-latinobarometro-2011
León, R. (1998). Humillados y ofendidos: un estudio acerca del desprecio y discriminación en el Perú. Revista de Psicología, 16(1), 45-81.
Montero, M. (1991). Una orientación para la Psicología Política en América Latina. Psicología Política, 3, 27-43.
Pancorbo, G., Espinosa, A. & Cueto, R. M. (2011). Representaciones estereotípicas y expresión del prejuicio en el Perú: la mirada desde la pobreza. Revista de Psicología, 29(2), 311-342.
Portocarrero, G. (2006, setiembre). Hacia una comprensión del racismo. Página de Gonzalo Portocarrero. Retrieved from http://gonzaloportocarrero.blogsome.com/2006/09/27/hacia-una-comprension-del-racismo/
Portocarrero, G. (1992). Del racismo al mestizaje: una apuesta por la integración . In G. Portocarrero (Ed.), Los quinientos años: un espacio para la reflexión (pp. 31-41). Lima: Allpamérica.
Reding, S. (2007). Diversidad y Racismo en América Latina. Latinoamérica. Revista de Estudios Latinoamericanos, 44, 157-179.
Schaller, M. & Crandall, C. S. (2004). The psychological foundations of culture. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Song Hing, L.S., Bodocel, D.R., Zanna, M.P., Garcia, D.M., Gee, S.S., & Orazietti, K. (2011). The Merit of Meritocracy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(3), 433-450. doi: 10.1037/a0024618
Stangor, C. (2009). The study of stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination within social psychology: A quick history of theory and research In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination (pp. 1-22). New York: Psychology Press.
Tajfel, H. (1969). Cognitive aspects of prejudice. Journal of Social Issues, 25, 79-97.
Tajfel, H. & Forgas, J. P. (1981). Social categorization: Cognition, values, and groups. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Social Cognition: Perspectives on Everyday understanding (pp. 113-140). London: Academic Press.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-48). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Tajfel, H. & Turner, J. C. (1986). The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior. In S. Worchel & G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (Rev.Vol. 2), (pp. 7- 24), Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
Traverso-Yépez, M. (2005). Discursos Racistas: Institucionalización del Racismo a través de las prácticas lingüísticas. Revista Interamericana de Psicología, 39, 61-70.
Turner, J. C., Brown, R. J., & Tajfel, H. (1979). Social comparison and group interest in ingroup favouritism. European Journal of Social Psychology, 9, 187-204.
Twanama, W. (1992). Cholear en Lima. Márgenes, 9, 207-240.
Van der Toorn, J., Feinberg, M., Jost, J. T., Kay, A. C., Tyler, T. R., Willer, R., & Wilmuth, C. (2015). A sense of powerlessness fosters system justification: Implications for the legitimation of authority, hierarchy, and government. Political Psychology, 36(1), 93-110.
Van Dijk, T. A. (2007). Racismo y discurso en América Latina: una introducción. In T. A. Van Dijk (Ed.). Racismo y discurso en América Latina (pp. 21-34). Barcelona: Gedisa.
Vargas Llosa, M. & Munné, A. (2004). Obras Completas VI: Ensayos literarios I. Barcelona: Galaxia Gutenberg.
Yzerbyt, V., & Cambon, L. (submitted). The dynamics of compensation: When does ingroup favoritism permit complimenting the outgroup?
Volpato, C., Andrighetto, L., & Baldissarri, C. (2017). Perceptions of low status workers and the maintenance of the social class status quo. Journal of Social Issues, 73(1), 192-210.
Yzerbyt, V. (2016). Intergroup stereotyping. Current Opinion in Psychology, 11, 90-95.
Yzerbyt, V. (2018). The dimensional compensation model: Reality and strategic constraints on warmth and competence in intergroup perceptions. In A. Abele & B. Wojciszke (Eds.), Agency and Communion in Social Psychology (pp. 126-141). London, UK:
Routledge.
Yzerbyt, V. Y., & Cambon, L. (2017). The dynamics of compensation: When ingroup favoritism paves the way for outgroup praise. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 43, 587-600. doi:10.1177/0146167216689066
Yzerbyt, V., Provost, V., & Corneille, O. (2005). Not Competent but Warm… Really? Compensatory Stereotypes in the French-speaking World. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 8(3), 291-308.
Zárate, M. (2009). Racism in the 21st Century. In T. Nelson (Ed.) Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination (pp. 387-406). New York: Psychology Press.
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2019-12-15
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How to Cite
Stereotypes and valuations of Peruvian social groups in a sample of wealthy people from Lima. (2019). LIBERABIT. Revista Peruana De Psicología, 25(2), 159-178. https://doi.org/10.24265/liberabit.2019.v25n2.03
